Erica N. Smith

The Best Evidence-Based Pedagogical Methods for Increasing Middle School Students' Motivation to Read

State University of New York at Cortland

Abstract

In this literature review, I will look at middle school students’ lack of motivation in the classroom, the history and effects of amotivation, and the theories on motivation (specifically the Self-Determination Theory) to see why the transition from elementary to middle school leads to such declines in motivation. For this research, I looked at twenty-one sources: eight secondary sources and thirteen primary sources. From the thirteen primary sources, I had two qualitative studies and eleven quantitative studies. Through my research, I found that students are motivated to read when they are able to have a choice in the book selection, when there is social interaction, intrinsic motivation, and active engagement with the text. From the twenty-one studies that I have examined, two studies found that book clubs would increase motivation in the classroom, two studies felt that differentiated instruction was a key element to an increase of motivation within middle school students, two concluded that read alouds would be the most effective method for increased motivation, and three studies felt that book choice would increase middle school students’ motivation to read. Some of the studies that were examined cross-referenced one another and led to conclusions which incorporated more than one method, such as differentiated instruction along with read alouds.

Introduction

Children in America attend school, on average, for 15,000 hours before high school graduation. With so much time spent in the classroom, adolescents should be well prepared for college and/or a career. But only one-half to one-third of graduating high school students are prepared to continue higher level education and training, and urban school districts will graduate only half the students that began in the ninth grade (Balfanz, 2009). There needs to be a way to boost the number of students who will be prepared for higher education or work; motivation is a key factor in getting students interested enough in the subject matter to continue preparing for their post-education experience (Margolis & McCabe, 2006).

One of the most significant and reoccurring problems in American schools involves motivation, or the lack thereof. Many studies (e.g., Guthrie & Davis, 2003; Ivey & Broaddus, 2001; Worthy, Moorman & Turner, 1999; Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier & Ryan, 1991) have shown that motivation is severely lacking in middle school students. Many speculate that the lack of motivation has everything to do with the passage of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and the Carrot and Stick Approach (CAST) that has come to dominate the educational communities (Stone, Deci & Ryan, 2009). NCLB forged students through the educational system with comprehensive testing as the main focal point; this focus detracted from student interest and student comprehension of the material being taught.

A raging debate in psychology for many years has focused on intrinsic versus extrinsic motivators in school systems. The CAST approach provides tangible rewards for completing work: extrinsic motivation, instead of looking at the importance of the work that is being completed: intrinsic motivation (Stone et al., 2009). Educators fear that subjecting students to extrinsic motivators would create less intrinsic motivation to complete tasks, and that students then become inclined to work only if there is going to be a tangible reward for the assignment. The CAST approach that many school districts now utilize has caused more problems than solutions, ranging from cheating on tests to fraud within the school administration in an attempt to salvage the ruins from standardized testing. There is a lot at stake from standardized testing ranging from state aid to bonuses for staff. Administrators have a lot to lose if the school district is not passing the exams. With so much riff-raff occurring at the administrative level, it should come as no surprise that students are now joining in on the deception. As with the CAST approach becomes widespread, intrinsic motivation is foregone and extrinsic motivation is the purposive goal. Reading ranks high among the areas in which students are unmotivated.

It has been known and documented for many years that middle school students have been are unmotivated in reading (e.g., Guthrie & Davis, 2003; Ivey & Broaddus, 2001; Worthy et al., 1999). In a well publicized empirical study, Ivey & Broaddus (2001), gathered student surveys to analyze what fosters middle school students’ engagement with reading and why they lack motivation to read. The survey found that there was a mismatch between the needs of the students and the instruction that they were receiving in the classroom, a lack of reconciliation on reading and writing in and out of the classroom, a lack of student-centered classrooms, and a disconnect between what students want to learn and the curriculum that the school districts follow (Ivey & Broaddus, 2001). Students are not being captivated by the reading materials offered and they are faced with a lack of choice in the classroom. This has led to a decrease in motivation to read and, in turn, has greatly harmed adolescents’ chances for success.

This literature review will look at the many components and theories that comprise the term “motivation” deficits by teachers and administrators will be examined as well as some important discoveries in the field of motivation. This review will look at evidence-based pedagogical methods to increase middle school students’ motivation to read in school and for leisure. The background of motivation will be taken into consideration along with the prevalent themes that continue to show prominence in academic research articles and surveys. Some of the questions that were asked are:

What is motivation? Why is motivation important?

What causal effects have been found that are leading to decreased motivation in students?

What theories are available to explain the lack of motivation in students?

How can we, as educators, become better informed and turn our students into motivated learners?

What Is Motivation?

Motivation is defined as the needs and drives that are inherent in all people (Anderrman & Maehr, 1994). In this review, motivation refers to intrinsic motivation, unless otherwise stated. Intrinsic motivation looks at the internal accomplishment that people feel when they have achieved a goal. Extrinsic motivation looks at the external forces that motivate a person to complete a task. I will discuss both forms of motivation in the theoretical framework section. Motivation is the study of perceptions and beliefs that drive a person internally and externally, to obtain goals. It is an important determiner of the success that a person will experience. Motivation has been linked to reading achievement, which is important to recognize because, according to O’Sullivan (1996), a new trend in the job market is an increase in literacy demands on prospective employees (Kelly & Decker, 2009). It is common knowledge that students who have a vast history of reading experience will also have better writing skills because they have been subjected to various forms of writing for years. Without the ability to write, students will be faced with the daunting task of finding a job in an economy that is becoming less favorable to the uneducated masses. Writing is a key component for having accessibility to jobs because in the form of a letter or resume, it is the first introduction that offered to a future employer.

According to a survey by the Rand Corporation’s Educational Research (2004), more than half of all eighth graders are not reading at the proper level (Mucherah & Yoder, 2008). Many states require passing grades on standardized exams in order to successfully complete high school (Mucherah & Yoder, 2008), and with a lack of reading comprehension skills in eighth grade, it is unlikely that a student will be prepared for these final exams (Mucherah & Yoder, 2008).

The Role of Attitude in Motivation

The key to examining a lack of motivation in middle school students is to analyze common psychological theories on motivation. When examining middle school students’ motivation to read, it is important to keep in mind that motivation and interest are interrelated. An interest is a learned predisposition to act consistently towards given objects (Ley & And, 1994). Between the ages of twelve and fourteen, both motivation and interest peak (Ley & And, 1994), which further explains lack of motivation in middle school students. If teachers are unable to pique the interest of students between the ages of twelve and fourteen, students will quickly lose interest and their motivation will significantly decrease (Ley & And, 1994). There are two types of interest: situational and individual (Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000). Situational interest is generated through stimuli in the environment; Hidi & Harackiewicz (2000) assert that situational interest could contribute to motivating the unmotivated student if teachers structured fostering the educational experience in a way that have not previously been experienced by the students. A sub-class of situational interest is text based. Text based studies the various components of texts in the classroom. By making the text more engaging and interactive, teachers will increase students’ comprehension increases and students will be able to recall much more of the text at a later date (Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000). Situational interest is most commonly associated with external motivators; therefore, to increase students’ interest in reading both extrinsic and intrinsic motivations are needed to maintain interest in reading (Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000). Attitude affects students’ abilities to read and can either provide a support for motivation or lead to decreased motivation (McKenna & Kear, 1995).

Effects Leading to Decreased Motivation in Middle School Students

Socioeconomic status is a large factor contributing to middle school students’ decreased motivation (Buschick, Shipton, Winner & Wise, 2007). The most impoverished schools lack the resources and money to buy books for the classroom and to decrease class size, which would allow teachers to work more exclusively with students in small groups (Balfanz, 2009). When teachers give students more individualized attention, students are able to work on tasks that meet their own capabilities, thus building on their self-efficacy; self-efficacy has a strong impact on engagement in activities, such as reading (Margolis & McCabe, 2006).

Culture and the demographics (urban, suburban, rural populations) also heavily contribute to the lackluster performance of many middle school students. Minority students may feel that teachers want to assimilate them into the dominant culture and erase their cultural identity; this belief has led many minority students to feel as though they are being oppressed (McKenna & Kear, 1995).

Too many students do not have motivation to read because they live in environments that are not conducive to reading. Some students must go home from school and watch their younger siblings while their parents work two jobs to support the family; this situation is becoming increasingly common as the economy sags and the cost of living continues to soar. Another factor that contributes to decreased motivation is parents. Parents may feel that education is not a worthy cause and pass the feeling of apathy to their children. The indifference accumulates and finally exacerbates at the middle school level due to several factors.

Several variables come into effect when elementary students become middle school students. The first is that the reading instruction no longer pertains to the content of the text(Guthrie & Davis, 2003); many middle school teachers believe the myth that middle school students have already been taught how to read and no longer require explicit strategies to fully comprehend the content of the reading material. On the contrary, middle school students need to develop new techniques to read texts that are much more formidable than those in elementary school. Students begin to realize that they may be struggling readers due to the difficulty of the reading material. By struggling reader, I am referring to students who are disengaged only from academic reading, not from pleasure reading (Guthrie & Davis, 2003; Ivey, 1998 ). Other indications of a struggling reader include a lack of cognitive competencies, a decreased self-efficacy, procrastination, and a student who is extrinsically motivated, typically either grade-oriented or afraid of negative consequences for not having complete work (Guthrie & Davis, 2003). Self-efficacy is the judgment of one’s ability to organize and execute given types of performance (Kelley & Decker, 2009); the self-efficacy of a student along with outcome expectations guides his or her motivation to read (Kelley & Decker, 2009). According to Guthrie & Davis, students are unsure of their own efficacy when reading (2003); students are therefore starting out with low confidence, and they rely on how they are able to handle hard words and passages in reading as the determiner of their efficacy in reading instead of starting out with confidence in their reading aptitudes. Another problem that adds to students’ self-efficacy issues are that students are no longer able to receive the support of a teacher who reads through texts that seem incomprehensible because middle school teachers are working with not just one class, but a multitude of classes and upwards of a hundred students a day.

In addition to dealing with isolation and distance from the teacher as well as much less exposure to real world interactions within the academic world, students in middle school have no choice in the reading material as opposed to elementary students (Guthrie & Davis, 2003); All of these factors tend to create the apathetic students who are spoken of in studies of motivation. Students start to see themselves as incapable of doing the reading that is being assigned (lack of self-efficacy)and, due to their feelings of inadequacy, the students start to lose valuable ground by no longer reading (Worthy et al., 1999). Unrau & Schlackman (2006) found that there were significant declines in motivation between sixth and eighth grade. Girls were extrinsically motivated by grades, a social life, and compliance to the rules, and this extrinsic motivation led to a downward trend in motivation in middle school. Unrau & Schlackman found that boys were also extrinsically motivated, through competition, and this led to a decrease in reading motivation within middle school (2006).

The Rules Governing the Schools (and the Teachers)

The factors that contribute to a significant decrease in motivation for middle school students have been aligned with the rules governing teachers and administrators. There are two common types of teachers: task goal-oriented teachers and performance goal teachers (Guthrie & Davis, 2003). Performance goal teachers lead to decreased motivation in students, whereas task goal-oriented teachers increase students’ interest and motivation in schools. Task goals are objectives held by teachers which allow their students to make mistakes and learn from them (Guthrie & Davis, 2003). The task goal-oriented teacher allows students to become immersed in learning through discovery and exploration; this allows students to activate prior knowledge, which will lead them to use critical thinking skills which will build their competence and self-efficacy. Task goal teachers, however, are not as common as performance goal teachers. Due in a large part to No Child Left Behind (NCLB), many districts are resigned to using testing and as a determiner of student achievement. The pressure of doing well on standardized tests is transferred from the teacher to the students, thus creating an environment in which students are competitive, afraid of making mistakes, and bereft of intrinsic motivation (Guthrie & Davis, 2003; Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000; Kelly & Decker, 2009).

Certain students do very well in schools that are focused on standardized tests. These students use school as a mode of competition, and they are known as ability-focused students (Anderrman & Maehr, 1994). These students will use surface level strategies to succeed in school, but these same strategies will be ineffective at retaining any of the information. Students who have performance goals are looked at by teachers for their ability rather than their effort. Due to this, students believe that their abilities are “fixed” traits and that they should not even bother expending effort. They feel that if they put forth an effort and fail, they will be labeled as “dumb” (Anderrman & Maehr, 1994). This leads to motivational problems because the students do not believe that they have the ability to compete with the “smart” students (Anderrman & Maehr, 1994). Testing leads to competition among students and competition leads to a decrease in motivation (Kelly & Decker, 2009).

Theoretical Framework

The main theorists I use in this review to identify the many components of motivation are Deci and his counterpart Ryan. The cornerstone theory I use is the Self-Determination Theory of Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier & Ryan (1991). Many contemporary theorists and authors continue to use this landmark article when studying motivational issues (e.g., Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000; Ivey & Broaddus, 2001). The theory is based on the notion that the type/equality of a person’s motivation is more important than the predicted outcomes (Deci et al., 1991). In order to solve the motivational dilemma, it is imperative to look at the underlying causes of the motivation before exploring the effects of the motivation. There are two different concepts that the Self-Determination Theory addresses: causality orientation and aspirations (life goals).

There are two goals for aspirations: intrinsic and extrinsic. When a person aspires to be wealthy and famous, that person is looking at extrinsic aspirations. If the person looks at his/her well being or personal development, then he/she is looking at intrinsic benefits. An aspiration is not the needs of a person; rather it shows how competently the autonomy has been satisfied as opposed to not being satisfied (Deci & Ryan, 2008). It is good to have both intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations.

For many years, psychologists have debated the value of intrinsic rewards versus the detraction of extrinsic rewards in education. Studies have shown that as intrinsic motivation decreases from elementary school to middle school, extrinsic motivation increases (Guthrie & Davis, 2003). Students go from a nurturing environment with one teacher to a more impersonal environment with one teacher per subject.

Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation

I have already discussed the main value of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, but I am now going to delve deeper. There are four types of extrinsic motivation: external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation, and integrated regulation. (Please see table #1 for the definitions of each.)

Table #1: Extrinsic Motivation Scale

Word	Definition
external regulation	The locus of the belief is external to the person
introjected regulation	The locus of the belief is taken in, but not accepted as one’s own
identified regulation	The person values the behavior and accepts the regulation
integrated regulation	The locus of the belief is fully integrated with the individual sense of self (most developmentally advanced extrinsic motivator)

(Deci et al., 1991)

As demonstrated in the table above, external regulation begins as a reward that is completely separate from the beliefs of the receiver. An example of this would be when a student reads a book because he/she knows that he/she will be getting a coupon for a restaurant. A problem that may arise from this form of extrinsic motivation includes the depreciation of intrinsic value. The debate among scholars on the influence of intrinsic/extrinsic motivation occurs when a student is forced to do an action. The student will ascribe the accomplishment of the task as an effort due to external forces; this leaves the student feeling less competent and without self-satisfaction (Fawson & Moore, 1999). The proponents of intrinsic motivation believe that children will take less responsibility for their actions if they can designate the action to an external force. The only time that extrinsic motivation is looked upon favorably by both sides is when it is integrated regulation or if the self-perception theory applies to the scenario. The self-perception theory states that if external forces are not perceived while attainment of the goal is being achieved, then people will attribute their behavior to intrinsic motivators (Lepper, Greene & Nisbett, 1973).

Methods

Certain key words were used to identify sources valid for this review. The search words used were: “motivation,” “intrinsic motivation,” “extrinsic motivation,” “middle school readers,” “Self determination theory,” and “struggling readers.” The databases I used to find articles and journals were: Google Scholar, EBSCOHost, Illumina, ERIC, JSTOR, Teacher Reference Center, Education Research Complete, Professional Development Collection, American Educational Research Association, and Business Source Complete databases. All articles were separated into primary and secondary sources (see Appendix A for the primary sources and Appendix B for the secondary sources).

I also used the Cortland Memorial Library and the Binghamton University library to obtain research books and articles that I was unable to retrieve through the aforementioned online databases. I used the keywords “motivation,” “intrinsic motivation,” “extrinsic motivation,” “middle school readers,” “Self determination theory,” and “struggling readers” to find articles and books through the interlibrary loan system (ILLIAD).

Criteria Used to Locate Articles For This Review:

The studies focused on motivation within an educational setting. I did not strictly direct my attention to reading motivation alone because I felt it was important to note the attitudes and motivations of middle school children in general. This then led me to specific articles that focused on the reading attitudes and motivation of middle school kids. The general and specific articles on motivation corresponded directly with one another, as I had hypothesized that they would.

The student populace consisted of middle school students only. A few of the articles looked at elementary school children first, but then moved on to middle school children.

The articles described the current trends in motivation and analyzed at least one of the following datum a) the psychological perspective of motivation towards the epidemic of declining reading motivation in middle schools b) some solutions to the dilemma of declining reading motivation in middle school c) factors contributing to the declining motivation rates in middle schools d) how motivation affects students in middle school

All of the articles used were relevant to the nature of the study through either the theoretical approach or the actual studies performed that demonstrated the lack of motivation in the field of education. I have excluded articles that looked into reading programs and initiatives within schools to improve the reading comprehension of middle school students. Some of these articles included A Synthesis of Reading Interventions and Effects on Reading Comprehension Outcomes for Older Struggling Readers (Edmonds et al., 2009); and Interventions for Adolescent Struggling Readers: A Meta-Analysis with Implications for Practice (Scammacca, Roberts, Vaughn, Edmonds & Wexler, 2007). Both of these articles give explicit information about various techniques used in the classroom to improve reading strategies, but they do not discuss motivation within the classroom.

Limitations

As with any review, there are going to be certain limitations that come into effect. The first limitation that I noticed was that many of the research articles I used had fewer than two hundred subjects for a sample size (Buschick et al., 2007; Ivey & Broaddus, 2001; Kelley & Decker, 2009; Lepper & And, 1973; Ley & And, 1994; Whittingham & Huffman , 2009). There were also cases in which a random sampling simply did not occur as a part of the study (Buschick et al., 2007; Kelley & Decker, 2009; Unrau & Shlackman, 2006).

Secondly, I did not locate a single study that stated that the authors had another source check their work to verify that information was correct. As is common in educational studies, there were also a few qualitative studies that used case studies as the methodology (Lepper et al., 1973; Ivey, 1999).

Results

Evidence-Based Methods for Increasing Middle School Students’ Motivation to Read

I will first look at the four evidence-based methods (book clubs, scaffolded instruction, read alouds, and book choice) that have been proven effective in motivating middle school students to read according to the studies that I have examined in my research. I will also evaluate the four evidence-based methods that were proven effective in the studies that I examined for this paper.

Book clubs

There were two studies that indicated book clubs as a viable solution to increasing middle school students’ motivation to read. In the first, Jeff Whittingham and Stephanie Huffman studied sixty middle school students who had volunteered to participate one day per week in a book club. The effects of the book club were based on ten questions that Whittingham and Huffman created using the Likert response system (strongly agree, agree, strongly disagree, etc.) and the International Reading Association’s Position Statement on Adolescent Literacy. The surveys were completed on the first and last day of the book club. The results indicated that students who spent a lot of time participating in the book club did not have a shift in attitude towards reading during the book club; however, students who spent very little time with the book club had a significant increase in their self-worth towards reading, and furthermore, the students who spent less time with the book club showed significant increases in their overall interest to life-long learning. These results are valuable because they show that reluctant readers, even those who do not put time into a book club, are able to gain confidence as a reader and confidence can quickly become motivation.

In the second study that supports book clubs, John Guthrie and Marcia Davis surveyed every student from third, fifth, and eighth grade in the state of Maryland through a survey that was administered by teachers (2003). The survey was Likert-like (a lot, sometimes, never, etc.) and given to students under the auspices of the State Department of Maryland. The results of the survey indicated that teachers did not give students necessary reading skills under the assumption that students had already learned the skills; classes were teacher-focused, and students did not have the freedom of book choice; there was no personal interaction and engagement with texts; and there was no collaboration within the classroom (Guthrie & Davis, 2003). Guthrie and Davis concluded that students needed to have six things in order to increase motivation for reading: purposive goals, real-world transference of material, interesting texts, student choice for books, scaffolded instruction, and collaborative efforts such as book clubs (2003).

Book clubs are also a way to increase motivation in the classroom because they emphasize reading as a positive experience, and there are opportunities for poor readers to contribute to the classroom conversation (Whittingham & Huffman , 2009, Fawson & Moore, 1999).

Scaffolded Instruction

Scaffolded instruction was another effective strategy to increase students’ motivations to read. Students were found to be more responsive to the texts because of the personal responses that they were able to incorporate into their readings. One of the prevalent problems noted with scaffolded instruction was that teachers felt uncomfortable having to teach this way (Ivey, 1999). Teachers were not used to this method of teaching, and that made this method difficult to learn.

There were two studies that demonstrated support for scaffolded instruction as a means to increase middle school students’ motivation to read. To be clear, many of the studies that I examined were closely linked and supported a combination of methods in order to increase motivation. Guthrie and Davis, as aforementioned, support scaffolded instruction to increase middle school students’ motivation to read (2003). Direct instruction allows students of all abilities to gain strength in weak areas, such as reading, and it allows the students to see a model of effective reading strategies (Guthrie & Davis, 2003). Direct instruction, as explained by Wood et al. (2005)consists of modeling, scaffolding, guided practice with feedback, and independent reading (Guthrie & Davis, 2003); all of these steps enable students to take responsibility for their own learning which increases intrinsic motivation, and it builds confidence which may lead to increased interest (Guthrie & Davis, 2003).

In the second study conducted by Buschick et al., there were 1,204 students observed from two different sites; the students and the teachers were each given a questionnaire to answer, and the teachers in the study used tally marks to note the various disruptive behaviors during Silent Sustained Reading (SSR). This study focused on the use of multiple intelligences within the classroom, but it also looked at how other methods could contribute to the success of increasing the motivation to read in middle school students. By using scaffolded instruction in the classroom, students are more engaged in the activities, and there are fewer disruptive behaviors (Buschick et al., 2007). As Guthrie and Davis also noted, scaffolded instruction increases students’ confidence, which leads to increased motivation and interest; students benefit from having the material modeled so that they can develop their own effective reading strategies, while also drawing upon the strategies that the teacher demonstrates.

The use of multiple intelligences led to significant increases in motivation within the classroom (2007). The most common multiple intelligence was verbal/linguistic and interpersonal, and the least common personality was intrapersonal/naturalistic. This method was used in combination with direct instruction to introduce material to students in the method that suited the individual styles of learning.

Read Alouds

As an indirect route from scaffolded instruction, read-alouds were also a popular choice of teachers, and the read-alouds led to increased motivation within schools (Ivey & Broaddus, 2001). The read-alouds correlate closely with the scaffolded exercises because the texts are made much more comprehensible for students (Ivey & Broaddus, 2001). Read-alouds are appropriate for students of all levels, and they allow students to see reading as a fun activity.

Gay Ivey and Karen Broaddus delivered a survey to 1,765 students in regards to their feelings about reading in and outside of school (2001). Ivey and Broaddus also conducted thirty-one personal interviews to gain a deeper understanding of students’ feelings about reading. At the end of the study, evidence from the research conclusively identified read alouds as a favorite activity of students in the classroom. The students felt that read alouds were engaging, and teachers were able to make the text more comprehensible and interesting (Ivey & Broaddus, 2001).

In the second survey, Buschick et al. pointed out some disturbing trends in reading from the surveys that they collected from the students. 81% of students enjoy being read to by a teacher whereas only 42% of students enjoyed having parents read to them; this follows along with the idea that students tend to view reading as an academic activity more than an out-of-school activity (Buschick et al., 2007). It is difficult to interest students in activities that are not transferable to other areas of their lives. Even though the results seem detrimental to students’ motivation, it is still important to do read alouds in the classroom because this activity correlates well with scaffolded instruction, and read alouds allow students to become actively engaged in the text (Buschick et al., 2007).

Book Choice

The final method that I found to be popular as a factor in increasing the motivation of students was book choice (Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000; Guthrie & Davis, 2003; Deci et al., 1991). Book choice allows students to have some control over their learning and it can lead to cooperative learning with peers through book clubs (Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000).

Betts (1954) found that students need to be able to identify 95% of the words in a text so that they are able to build confidence and advance in reading comprehension (Ivey, 1999). Ivey fully supports book choice because students are going to find books that match their own reading level whereas a teacher may choose a text that is too difficult for the student (Ivey, 1999). Through several case studies, Ivey discovered that students need the opportunity of book choice so that they can be “hooked” and continue to read in and out of school (Ivey, 1998; Ivey, 1999).

In another study, Ivey and Broaddus found that students related good reading experiences with opportunities in which they were allowed to choose their own book (2001). Ivey and Broaddus recommend that schools make the connection between out-of-school texts and classroom practices so that the reading becomes transferable and pertinent to students’ lives. This connection will build interest in reading and increase motivation within the classroom.

Fawson and Moore proclaimed in their research that choice and control are two of the most influential motivators leading to an increased interest for middle school students to read (1999). Book choice allows students to have control and take responsibility for their own learning (Fawson & Moore, 1999).

Findings Regarding Student Attitude and Self-Efficacy

McKenna & Kear (1995) discusses how attitude plays an important role in the abilities of students. Attitude affects engagement and a poor attitude can lead to aliteracy, the notion that reading is always the last option if there is a choice (McKenna & Kear, 1995). It is imperative that student interest be maintained if teachers are to increase motivation in middle school students. There were several articles that discussed gender gaps in attitude and factors that contribute to decreased attitudes towards reading in middle school students.

There were two articles which contained contradictory findings about girls’ versus boys’ attitudes for motivation. The first study found that more girls have positive attitudes than boys (McKenna & Kear, 1995). The findings indicated that this was due to cultural expectations that boys will have more of a negative attitude towards reading whereas girls will be more likely to pick up a book for leisure (McKenna & Kear, 1995). Another study found that there was no significant difference between boys’ and girls’ attitudes towards reading (Ley & And, 1994). This study contained a smaller sample size of only 164 students, who were all from the same school (Ley & And, 1994), as opposed to the 18,185 sample size from schools around the country in the McKenna study (1995).

The Mucherah (2008) study found that female students have a higher reading comprehension and efficacy rate than male students. The study focused on results from the ISTEP (Indiana Statewide Testing for Educational Progress) and used information that students provided from the MRQ (Motivation for Reading Questionnaire) designed by Wigfield and Guthrie in 1995 (Mucherah & Yoder, 2008). The MRQ looks at self-efficacy, intrinsic/extrinsic motivations, and the social aspects of motivation (Mucherah & Yoder, 2008). Results found that students with a high efficacy in reading enjoyed challenging reading and performed better on the ISTEP; students who enjoyed reading for social reasons did not perform as well on the test (Mucherah & Yoder, 2008). Another result from this study found that sixth graders read more for extrinsic value whereas eighth graders read more for intrinsic value (Mucherah & Yoder, 2008).

Worthy et al. found that there was an increased gap between the preferences of student reading material and the material provided by schools (1999). The study found that students’ attitudes toward reading did not decrease because all of the students in the study listed a favorite author, book, or series that they enjoyed. The motivation to read classroom texts was the only source of decreased motivation for reading (Worthy et al., 1999).

These results all indicate that a viable solution is available in middle school classrooms to increase motivation.

Discussion

What Is the Value of Motivation?

Motivation leads students from passivity to active engagement. Motivation for reading leads to internalization of the material and integration into the students’ lives (Deci et al., 1991). When reading is internalized, students begin to read because of the personal value that reading holds (intrinsically motivated). Teachers should strive to move students from being mostly extrinsically motivated to being intrinsically motivated so that students are able to internalize what they are learning (Hidi & Harackiewitc, 2000). This can be accomplished by piquing the interest of students through exciting readings and then asking students to explore issues for themselves (Hidi & Harackiewitc, 2000).

Which Pedagogical Practices Lead to Increased Motivation?

The studies I reviewed reveal that book clubs, read alouds, scaffolded instruction, and book choice are proven pedagogical methods which can be implemented into a classroom to create an increased interest and motivation towards reading (Whittingham & Huffman , 2009; Fawson & Moore, 1999; Buschick et al., 2007; Ivey, 1999; Ivey & Broaddus, 2001). Book clubs contain the essence of success: collaboration, creating reading as an “experience,” choice of reading material, and variety (Whittingham & Huffman , 2009). Following the Self-Determination Theory, it is imperative for teachers to allow autonomy, competence, and relatedness within the classroom (Deci & Ryan, 2008). Autonomy allows students to have a choice in the reading material, an idea of which Ivey is a strong advocate (2001). It also allows students to foster their decision-making skills and ultimately leads to empowerment (Stone et al., 2009).

The success of book clubs will be determined by the models and the scaffolded lessons that the teacher provides (Whittingham & Huffman , 2009). Students need to build confidence in their reading ability. Given the ability to choose their own books, students are able to have control over their learning experience, and this creates intrinsic motivation (Fawson & Moore, 1999). According to the Self-Determination Theory, autonomous motivation is a person’s intrinsic and extrinsic drive; the extrinsic rewards, however, are based on an integrated regulation motivator (Deci & Ryan, 2008). It leaves the student feeling empowered and leads to optimal functioning in the classroom. Autonomous motivation is linked to an inner cognizance, which may help to explain why some students have good reading comprehension (self-reflection and cohesiveness between material being learned as well as prior knowledge). Book clubs can even transition students from “light” reading, such as young adult novels and magazines, to “heavier” reading, such as canonical texts and poetry (Worthy et al., 1999). Many popular novels can be linked to canonical texts through morals, story lines, symbolism, or themes.

Book clubs also add a social aspect to reading that is commonly missing in classroom settings. Ley and And’s (1994)found that as students mature, they will abandon reading for group activities, and Fawson and Moore found that students like to talk to each other about their reading interests (1999).

As book clubs reinforce collaboration and social aspects, they also create active engagement with the text. Engaged reading not only leads to increased reading comprehension, but it is also knowledge driven, and students will be able to make valuable connections between their book club text and other reading material (Guthrie & Davis, 2003). The most important aspect of engagement is that it heavily contributes to motivation (Whittingham & Huffman , 2009). When teachers add meaning and value to a classroom, students are more willing to stay on task, even when the work is boring (Stone et al., 2009). Teachers may need to use extrinsic motivators to entice students to read if they are still balking. Reading incentives allow students to have the extrinsic motivation as the teacher tries to find connections that will intrinsically motivate and internalize the reading process (Fawson & Moore, 1999).

Read alouds can be added to any lesson or method used in the classroom, especially book clubs. A read aloud is where a teacher reads a book out loud to students while employing critical thinking strategies such as predicting the future in the story and asking questions to see the deeper meaning within the text. Read alouds also entail Think alouds where the teacher is talking through the process of thinking about the story as he or she is reading. Students are able to comprehend the text as it is being read aloud to them because there are no other distractions, such as reading comprehension errors or other students reading aloud at the same time (Ivey & Broaddus, 2001). A read aloud provides scaffolded instruction because the teacher is scaffolding the material, and thus making it appropriate for students of all reading levels (Ivey & Broaddus, 2001).

Teachers should focus on differentiated instruction in the classroom as well as how to use students’ multiple intelligences –linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic –to activate the motivation to read (Buschick et al., 2007). This can be determined by handing out a survey to students that discusses how they feel that they learn best. Each question contains a multiple intelligence and the students answer questions about how they like to learn (listen to music, move around, circle objects on papers, take notes, etc.). The teachers can also track the most common distractions in the room to determine what may not work for students (sound may be too distracting; people getting up from their desks frequently may be distracting; etc.). Between these two tests, a students’ dominant intelligence can be determined (Buschick et al., 2007).

Book clubs align closely with Buschick’s study on multiple intelligences because they are a part of the interpersonal and verbal/linguistic intelligence. The diversity lends itself to multidimensional lessons which incorporate auditory, kinesthetic, or visual lessons which cater to the various multiple intelligences (Ivey, 1998). In this manner, teachers can effectively create lessons that are engaging and interesting.

Future Research

According to Anderrman & Maehr (1994), future studies should focus on middle school students’ self-efficacy and how it changes over the pubescent years. Self-efficacy plays a significant role in the formulation of attitude. Self-efficacy presumably declines as adolescents become more self-conscious and have self-esteem issues. To what extent does efficacy affect student’s learning and motivation?

I think more research could be done on the uses of Multiple Intelligence learning in the classroom. Studies might investigate how well students do when lessons are focused around the most popular intelligences of the class, especially how well students with the least common intelligences fare. I think that Multiple Intelligence learning could be one of the most beneficial sources to increase motivation in the classroom. It gives the students more responsibility and it leads to metacognitive awareness, which is important for development and reflection.

Conclusion

The Self-Determination Theory not only shows the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic motivators, but it also explains why there these two motivators have been so hotly debated in psychology. School is supposed to train students how to become responsible citizens when they complete their education. If students rely strictly on extrinsic forces, they are not learning responsibility and they are not internalizing the actions that they have been completing. Many of the capstone studies that I examined (Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000; Deci et al., 1991) conclude that both intrinsic and extrinsic forces are needed for students to develop motivation and interest.

There were also several pedagogical methods that have been shown as effective in increasing motivation for middle school students: book clubs, scaffolded instruction, read alouds, and book choice. All of these methods incorporate social dynamics, attention to the individual student, choice of reading, and a student-centered classroom. These four factors successfully contribute to increasing motivation in middle school students.

References

Anderman, E. M., & Maehr, M. L. (1994). Motivation and schooling in the middle grades. Review of Educational Research. 64(2), 287-309. (B)

Balfanz, R. (2009). Can the American high school become an avenue of advancement for all? Future of Children, 19(1), 17-36. Retrieved from CINAHL Plus with Full Text database.

Buschick, M., Shipton, T., Winner, L., & Wise, M. (2007, May 1). Increasing reading motivation in elementary and middle school students through the use of multiple intelligences. Online Submission, Retrieved from ERIC database.

Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology, 49(3), 182-185. doi:10.1037/a0012801.

Deci, E., Vallerand, R., Pelletier, L., & Ryan, R. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3/4), 325. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database.

Fawson, P., & Moore, S. (1999). Reading incentive programs: Beliefs and practices. Reading Psychology, 20(4), 325-340. doi:10.1080/027027199278385.

Guthrie, J., & Davis, M. (2003). Motivating struggling readers in middle school through an engagement model of classroom practice. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 19(1), 59. Retrieved from Teacher Reference Center database.

Hidi, S. & Harackiewicz, J. (2000). Motivating the academically unmotivated: A critical issue for the 21st century. Review of Educational Research, 70(2), 151-179. Retrieved from American Educational Research Association.

Ivey, G. (1998). Discovering readers in the middle level school: A few helpful clues. NASSP Bulletin, 82(600), 48. Retrieved from Teacher Reference Center database.

Ivey, G. (1999). Reflections on teaching struggling middle school readers. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 42(5), 372. Retrieved from Professional Development Collection database.

Ivey, G., & Broaddus, K. (2001). Just plain reading: A survey of what makes students want to read in middle school classrooms. International Reading Association, 36(4), 350-377. Retrieved from JSTOR database.

Kelley, M., & Decker, E. (2009). The current state of motivation to read among middle school students. Reading Psychology, 30(5), 466-485. doi:10.1080/02702710902733535.

Lepper, M., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R. (1973). Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the "overjustification" hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28(1), 129-137. Retrieved from Illumina database.

Ley, T., & And, O. (1994). Longitudinal study of the reading attitudes and behaviors of middle school students. Reading Psychology, 15(1), 11-38. Retrieved from ERIC database.

Margolis, H., & McCabe, P. (2006). Motivating Struggling Readers in an Era of Mandated Instructional Practices. Reading Psychology, 27(5), 435-455. doi:10.1080/02702710600848023.

McKenna, M., & Kear, D. (1995). Children's attitudes toward reading: A national survey. Reading Research Quarterly, 30(4), 934. Retrieved from Teacher Reference Center database.

Mucherah, W., & Yoder, A. (2008). Motivation for reading and middle school students’ performance on standardized testing in reading. Reading Psychology, 29, 214-235. doi: 10.1080/02702710801982159

Stone, D., Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (2009). Beyond talk: Creating autonomous motivation through self-determination theory. Journal of General Management, 34(3), 75-91. Retrieved from Business Source Complete database.

Unrau, N., & Schlackman, J. (2006). Motivation and its relationship with reading achievement in an urban middle school. The Journal of Educational Research, 100(2), 81-101. Retrieved from EBSCOHost database.

Whittingham, J., & Huffman, S. (2009). The effects of book clubs on the reading attitudes of middle school students. Reading Improvement, 46(3), 130-136. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database.

Worthy, J., Moorman, M., & Turner, N. (1999). What Johnny likes to read is hard to find in school. Reading Research Quarterly, 34(1), 12. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database.

Appendix A

Table #2: Primary Sources

Authors	Date	Participants	Purpose	Methods	Results	Critiques
Buschick, M., Shipton, T., Winner, L. & Wise, M.	May 1, 2007	Students from Site A (787 students) and Site B (417 students)	To increase the reading motivation in students through the use of multiple intelligences.	Tally marks were used by teachers during SSR when certain disruptive behaviors were noted Student survey (student reading habits) Teacher survey (used to see what teachers were doing to increase motivation in classes)	Decrease in movement behaviors during SSR Students chose books that suited their dominant intelligence Increase of student reading at home, and confidence in reading improved	The researchers used two of the schools that they taught in (bias)
Fawson, P. & Moore, S.	1999	5 school districts in Southwest (questionnaire was sent to principals, teachers, and parents)	Look at the conditions that must be present to motivate behavior and contrast this information with the results of a survey used to investigate the characteristics of reading incentive programs.	Questionnaires Follow-up interviews	Reading incentive programs are highly desirable by teachers and principals. These programs may violate the motivation theory and literacy engagement.	Only schools in the Southwest were used.
Guthrie, J. & Davis, M.	2003	All students in grades 3, 5, and 8 in the state of Maryland	To investigate a decline in reading motivation from elementary to middle school	Motivational theory Survey	The students in 8th grade were much more negative than those in 3rd or 5th.	Doubtful that they reached all students in the state of MD.
Ivey, G.	1999	3 students – Casey, Allison, and Ryan (all in sixth grade)	To provide detailed information about the multifaceted reading development of adolescents.	Qualitative (case) study Observations and discussions with students	Ivey found that student interests in reading and material provided were mismatched.	Qualitative (case) study Only three participants
Ivey, G. & Broaddus, K.	2001	1,765 sixth-grade students	To use students as informants about what motivates them to read	Surveys (with content analysis), and follow-up interviews	Students like independent reading and read alouds Students enjoyed the act of reading more than the social aspect of reading Quality and diversity were the top motivators for reading.	Limited by who would participate in study. Only thirty-one follow-up interviews and they were schools that were closest to interviewers. Classroom instruction was gathered from the teachers in a paper form
Kelley, M. & Decker, E.	2009	1,080 total 555(m) and 525 (f)	Students’ motivations to read.	The Motivation to Read Profile was used, but it was adapted for middle school students	Significant difference between (m) and (f) motivations to read. 52% of students’ motivation came from self-concept 48% came from value Lack of reading can negatively affect motivation to read	A majority of the students were white (74%) Only one school was used for experiment Students were not randomly selected Student’s responses to self reports could be dubious
Lepper, M., Greene, D. & Nisbett, R.	1973	Bing Nursery School (Stanford University campus)	To test the overjustification hypothesis – the idea that a person’s intrinsic interest in an activity may be decreased by making him/her participate in an activity through extrinsic means and towards an extrinsic goal.	The self-perception theory: a person engages in similar processes of inference about his own behavior and its meaning. Activities were set up periodically throughout the day, some with “rewards.”	Subjects in the expected reward condition showed less intrinsic interest in the target activity.	Small sample size
Ley, T., & And, O.	1994	164 students: 43% (m), 57% (f), 19% African American, 15% other	The relationship between reading attitudes and reading achievements.	3 year study (6-8 grade) Teale-Lewis Reading Attitude Scales Reading Behavior Profile	Attitudes decreased as grade/age increased. Students choose to read less during middle school years. There was no finding that females’ attitudes were greater than males’. Students enjoyed reading as much in eighth grade as they did in sixth	All of subjects were within same school district.
McKenna, M. & Kear, D.	1995	18,185 Students (1st through 6th grade)	To look at the developmental trends in recreational and academic reading attitudes Analyze the developmental relationship between recreational and academic reading attitudes versus reading ability, gender, and ethnicity. How basal reading materials have an effect on reading attitudes.	Attitude was determined by the Elementary Reading Attitude Survey	Attitudes towards reading become increasingly negative as the age/grade increases.	There was no uniform measure for reading ability. Negative attitudes are more clearly related to ability Girls have more positive attitudes about reading than boys. Ethnicity is not a factor Teacher’s reliance on basal reading does not have an effect on reading attitudes.
Mucherah, W. & Yoder, A.	2008	388 Sixth (90 students) and eighth graders (180 students)	To examine middle school students’ reading motivation and its relation to their performance on a standardized test on reading.	The Motivation for Reading Questionnaire Indiana Statewide Testing for Educational Progress	Certain reading motivation aspects are significantly related To students’ performance on the ISTEP+ test in reading. Students who had high self-efficacy in reading, enjoyed reading challenging material, and who enjoyed reading different kinds of literary material performed better on the ISTEP+ test in reading. Those who were motivated to read more for social reasons did not do as well on the ISTEP+ test in reading	The first time that the MRQ was used for middle school students (it was designed for elementary students)
Unrau, N. & Schlackman, J.	2006	2,000 students (sixth through eighth grade)	To investigate the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on reading achievement for urban middle school students.	Self-determination Theory MRQ Gates MacGinitie Reading Test	Intrinsic motivation directly affects the reading achievement of Asian middle school students.	Not random sampling
Whittingham, J. & Huffman, S.,	2009	60 middle school students who volunteered to participate one day per week in a book club.	To report whether or not the implementation of an independent book club could influence the attitudes of middle school students in relation to these areas.	10 questions from a Likert-like scale based on the International Reading Association’s Position Statement on Adolescent Literacy	Simple exposure to book clubs has a positive effect on students who are resistant to reading. Key to success is to have other students serve as models. Results show that students feel as though they do not have a variety of reading material.	Sample size is too small Not enough time for the study.
Worthy, J., Moorman, M. & Turner, N.	1999	426 students from 3 schools in Texas; two of the schools were low-income and the third was middle-income	To inform teachers about the reading material preferences of adolescents and to see if students motivation and engagement is tied to students’ interests in reading material.	Preference study and access through a two-part study. The ERAS was given on the same day as the preference study to find students’ attitudes towards reading. Students could also add books that were not originally on the list to the Part II of the survey.	Scary stories and books were most preferred by students, followed by sports, comics, teen magazines, and drawing books.	There were no high-income schools used in the study.

Appendix B

Table #3: Secondary Sources

Authors	Date	Purpose	Methods	Results
Anderman, E. & Maehr, M.	1994	Looks at recent theories of motivation and how this can be applied to middle school students.	Examines recent motivational theories Connects this to the unmotivated middle school student.	None
Balfanz, R.	2009	To see where American schools stand today (based on demographics of urban/suburban/rural schools, graduation rates, poverty rates) and where schools need to improve in order to prepare each student for post-secondary education or work.	Breaks down high schools according to demographics, poverty rates, graduation rates, etc.	American high schools have a long way to go in order to have every student prepared for college and work.
Deci, E. & Ryan, R.	2008	A brief breakdown of the complexities within the Self-Determination Theory	The Self-Determination Theory	None
Deci, E., Vallerand, R., Pelletier, L & Ryan, R.	1991	To explore the Self-Determination Theory within education	The Self-Determination Theory	Shows how the theory can be applied to educational settings and the detriments that hinder full incorporation into a school district.
Hidi, S. & Harackiewicz, J.	2000	To examine interests and goals as the two important motivational variables that impact individuals’ academic performances	Look at intrinsic and extrinsic factors and theories	Extrinsic motivations have been frowned upon as the educational system looks to re-energize intrinsic motivations. This is detrimental in that some extrinsic motivators are necessary and needed for development and happiness.
Ivey, G.	1998	To look at the decline in positive reading in middle school and determine if it may be caused by a mismatch in available reading material and the required texts	To look at three reoccurring themes: Middle level students need time to read in school MLS need good reading materials One size fits no one. Ivey looks at past case study that he conducted.	Made suggestions to teachers on how to increase motivation for reading in the classroom.
Margolis, H. & McCabe, P.	2006	This article looks at how to include motivational strategies while having to follow scripted teaching programs.	Uses five principles of motivation.	The five principles taught will help students’ self-efficacy and increase their motivation to become more proficient at reading.
Stone, D., Deci, E. & Ryan, R.	2009	To demonstrate how the Self-Determination Theory is a fix to the business sector as well as in the educational realms	The Self-Determination Theory	Demonstrate how the methods of motivational psychology benefit the business sector.